First Nations in Canada

Terminology and Identity

The term First Nations came into official government use in the 1980s to replace the term 'Indian band' when referring to groups of Indigenous people with common government and language. First Nations people themselves began adopting this term during activism in the 1970s to avoid using the word 'Indian,' which many considered a misnomer and offensive. There is no legal definition of the term First Nations, but it is used collectively to identify Indigenous peoples in Canada who are not Inuit or Métis. The term 'band' remains a legal designation under the Indian Act for a body of Indians for whose use lands have been set apart or for whom moneys are held in trust by the Crown. Many communities have also adopted 'First Nation' to replace 'band' in their formal community names, such as the Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations or Curve Lake First Nation. Increasingly, individuals identify specifically by their tribal or national identity, such as Haida or Kwakwaka'wakw, in recognition of distinct cultures.

The term Indigenous peoples in Canada encompasses First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples collectively. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, though 'Native' in English and 'Autochtone' in Canadian French are accepted. Under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the Crown historically referred to Indigenous peoples as tribes or nations. First Nations are not included in Statistics Canada's 'visible minority' category, as they constitute a separate demographic group. The singular form is First Nations person, or First Nations man or woman when gender-specific.

Historical Nations and Pre-Contact Societies

First Nations peoples have been in North America for tens of thousands of years, with established settlements and trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE to 1000 CE. As permanent and seasonal communities developed, diverse and sophisticated cultures emerged from coast to coast. These nations were organized into distinct linguistic and cultural groups across the continent. In the northwest were Athapaskan-speaking peoples like the Slavey, Tłı̨chǫ, Tutchone, and Tlingit. Along the Pacific coast lived the Haida, Tsimshian, Salish, Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-chah-nulth, Nisga'a and Gitxsan. The plains were home to the Blackfoot Confederacy, including the Kainai, Tsuutʼina and Piikani. The northern woodlands were the territory of the Cree and Chipewyan, while around the Great Lakes lived the Anishinaabe, Algonquin, Iroquois and Wyandot. Along the Atlantic coast were the Beothuk, Wolastoqiyik, Innu, Abenaki and Mi'kmaq.

These nations had complex societies and economies. The Blackfoot Confederacy migrated onto the Great Plains from eastern areas, following bison herds and cultivating berries and edible roots. The Iroquois Confederacy, formed around 1142 according to oral tradition, became powerful through their confederacy and adept cultivation of maize, beans, and squash. The Assiniboine were close allies and trading partners of the Cree, with a semi-nomadic lifestyle following bison. The Nuu-chah-nulth are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, encompassing fifteen separate but related First Nations. Oral traditions were the primary means of transmitting history, law, and knowledge, as seen in Squamish history which recounts events like a Great Flood and subsequent repopulation. Archaeological discoveries, such as the naturally mummified body of Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi found in British Columbia in 1999, provide significant information on life prior to extensive European contact, with genetic testing linking him to the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations.

European Contact and Colonial Impact

While there were brief interactions with Norse explorers around 1000 AD, prolonged European contact began with the establishment of permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. Early written European accounts often noted the friendliness of First Nations, who engaged in profitable trade. This trade, particularly in furs, strengthened some political entities like the Iroquois Confederation. The Aboriginal population at the time of contact in the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million. The effect of European colonization was catastrophic, resulting in a population decrease of 40 to 80 percent post-contact. This devastation is attributed to repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza, to which First Nations had no immunity. For example, smallpox in the late 1630s killed more than half of the Huron people. Inter-nation conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with colonial authorities, loss of land, and the subsequent loss of self-sufficiency further contributed to the decline. Some peoples, like the Beothuk in the Maritimes, disappeared entirely.

French colonization under Samuel de Champlain established a permanent colony at Quebec City in 1608. The fur trade became the economic engine of New France, with French voyageurs trading goods like guns, cloth, and kettles for beaver pelts with First Nations deep into the interior. This trade pattern encouraged only a small colonial population and discouraged agricultural development. In contrast to some British colonies, French settlement in the depopulated St. Lawrence Valley initially resulted in less direct intrusion on existing Indigenous lands, though this dynamic shifted over time. Early Portuguese expeditions, like those of the Corte-Real brothers around 1500, resulted in the capture of about 60 Aboriginal people as slaves. The relationship between First Nations and Europeans was initially cooperative, with First Nations assisting newcomers in living off the land and forming military alliances. Antagonism grew later as colonial forces became dominant and began to break treaties and force people off their lands.

Governance, Lands, and Legal Status

The basic unit of government for many First Nations under Canadian law is the band, a group for whom land has been set apart and money is held in trust by the Crown. There are currently 634 recognized bands in Canada, also known as First Nations communities. Each band typically has a Band Council, a governing body set up under the Indian Act, usually consisting of an elected chief and several councillors. Chiefs and councils are elected for two- or three-year terms to carry out community business, including education, infrastructure, bylaws, and services. these are colonial structures imposed on First Nations and are distinct from traditional governance systems. A reserve is land set apart and designated for the use and occupancy of members of a First Nation, which is different from the much larger territory of a nation's traditional lands.

The principal statute governing the federal government's relationship with First Nations is the Indian Act, first introduced in 1876. It outlines federal obligations and determines 'Indian status,' a legal recognition of a person's First Nations heritage that affords certain rights, such as the right to live on reserve land. An individual recognized under the Act is a Status Indian, entitled to specific programs and services. Land claims are a critical contemporary issue, divided into two broad categories. Comprehensive claims, or modern treaties, are based on the traditional use and occupancy of land by First Nations, Métis and Inuit who did not sign treaties. Specific claims are filed by First Nations who allege the federal government failed to fulfill its obligations under historic treaties or the Indian Act, such as through inadequate allocation of reserve land or misadministration of funds. Settlements can involve monetary compensation or land.

• The Indian Act was first introduced in 1876.
• There are 634 recognized First Nations bands in Canada.
• Band Council terms are typically two or three years in length.
• Land claims are divided into comprehensive and specific categories.
• A Status Indian is an individual registered under the Indian Act.
• A reserve is land set apart for the use of a specific First Nation.

The Assembly of First Nations and National Advocacy

The Assembly of First Nations (AFN) is the national advocacy organization representing First Nation citizens in Canada, which includes more than 900,000 people living in 634 communities and in urban areas. The AFN works to advance the collective aspirations of First Nations on matters of national or international concern. It was established after its first assembly of Chiefs in Penticton, British Columbia, in April 1982, and its charter was adopted in 1985. The organization is guided by an Executive Committee consisting of an elected National Chief and Regional Chiefs from each province and territory. As of 2026, the National Chief is Cindy Woodhouse Nepinak from Pinaymootang First Nation in Manitoba, a leader dedicated to protecting treaty rights, title, and self-determination.

The AFN hosts two Assemblies a year where mandates are established through resolutions supported by elected Chiefs or proxies from member First Nations. The decisions of the Executive Committee are also supported and guided by representatives from five national councils: Knowledge Keepers, Youth, Veterans, 2SLGBTQQIA+, and Women. A key high-level forum is the First Nations-First Ministers' Meeting (FNFMM), a limited-attendance event hosted by the Government of Canada, not the AFN. The AFN's role is central in advocating for issues such as ending the 'second generation cut-off' policy, which Indigenous leaders argue extends Canada's history of forced assimilation. The organization emerged from earlier groups like the National Indian Brotherhood, which was formed in 1968 to represent status and treaty Indians.

• The AFN's first assembly of Chiefs was held in Penticton, B.C., in April 1982.
• The AFN Charter was adopted in 1985.
• The National Chief as of 2026 is Cindy Woodhouse Nepinak (Pinaymootang First Nation).
• The AFN Executive Committee includes a National Chief and Regional Chiefs.
• The five AFN national councils are Knowledge Keepers, Youth, Veterans, 2SLGBTQQIA+, and Women.
• The AFN's predecessor was the National Indian Brotherhood, formed in 1968.

Cultural Recognition and Contemporary Observances

National Indigenous Peoples Day, celebrated annually on June 21, is a key observance that recognizes and celebrates the cultures, languages, and traditions of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples. The date coincides with the summer solstice, the longest day of the year, which holds deep spiritual and cultural significance for many Indigenous Peoples as a time of renewal and connection. The day originated in 1996 when Governor General Roméo LeBlanc declared June 21 as 'National Aboriginal Day' following consultations with Indigenous groups. In 2017, the Prime Minister announced the intention to rename it 'National Indigenous Peoples Day.' It is now part of the Celebrate Canada program, which includes other summer cultural celebrations.

Every year, First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities across the country host events on or around June 21 to share their rich and diverse cultures. Public participation is encouraged through attending local activities or sharing digital resources. This celebration is part of a broader national effort to honour Indigenous heritage. The federal department of Indigenous Services Canada supports this vision by working to empower Indigenous Peoples to independently deliver services and address socio-economic conditions in their communities. In 2021, there were 1,807,250 Aboriginal people in Canada, accounting for 5.0% of the total population, highlighting the growing demographic significance of these observances.

• National Indigenous Peoples Day is held every year on June 21.
• The day was first declared by Governor General Roméo LeBlanc in 1996.
• The Prime Minister announced the renaming to 'National Indigenous Peoples Day' in 2017.
• The day is part of the federal Celebrate Canada program.
• The Aboriginal population in 2021 was 1,807,250, or 5.0% of Canada's total.
• Indigenous Services Canada is the federal department supporting these efforts.

Demographic and Statistical Overview

First Nations constitute a significant and distinct demographic within Canada's population. Under federal employment equity law, they are a 'designated group,' alongside women, visible minorities, and people with disabilities. They are explicitly not included in the Statistics Canada 'visible minority' category, as there is a separate classification for First Nations, Métis and Inuit peoples. The distribution of the 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands is uneven across the country, with roughly half located in just two provinces: Ontario and British Columbia. The remaining bands are spread across the other provinces and territories, reflecting the diverse geographic origins of different nations.

Historical population estimates for the late 15th century, prior to widespread European contact, range from 200,000 to as high as two million. The catastrophic decline post-contact, estimated at 40 to 80 percent, shows the deep impact of colonization. Today, First Nations citizens, including both status and non-status individuals, live in a variety of settings. While many reside in their home communities and on reserves, a significant portion also lives in cities and towns across Canada. The Assembly of First Nations represents the interests of more than 900,000 First Nation citizens. The federal government provides public resources like the First Nation Profiles, an interactive map and information collection describing individual First Nation communities. In the 20th century, the First Nations population increased tenfold, with almost half of the current population under the age of 25.

Questions about First Nations in Canada

What is the difference between First Nations, Inuit, and Métis?

First Nations, Inuit, and Métis are the three distinct groups of Indigenous peoples in Canada. First Nations are Indigenous peoples who are neither Inuit nor Métis, traditionally living south of the tree line. The Inuit are Indigenous peoples of the Arctic. The Métis are descendants of unions between First Nations peoples and Europeans, primarily French, Scottish, and English traders, originating in the 17th to 19th centuries. The term Indigenous peoples in Canada collectively refers to all three groups.

How many First Nations are there in Canada?

There are 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands across Canada. A band is a legal designation under the Indian Act for a group of First Nations people for whom land has been set apart. Roughly half of these bands are located in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Many communities use 'First Nation' in their official name, such as the Curve Lake First Nation or the Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations.

What is the Assembly of First Nations?

The Assembly of First Nations (AFN) is the national advocacy organization representing First Nation citizens in Canada. It was established in 1982 after an assembly in Penticton, British Columbia, and its charter was adopted in 1985. The AFN is led by an elected National Chief and Regional Chiefs, guided by resolutions from member First Nations. As of 2026, the National Chief is Cindy Woodhouse Nepinak from Pinaymootang First Nation in Manitoba. The AFN emerged from the National Indian Brotherhood, which was formed in 1968.

What is National Indigenous Peoples Day?

National Indigenous Peoples Day is celebrated annually on June 21, the summer solstice. It is a day to recognize and celebrate the cultures, languages, and traditions of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples. First declared as National Aboriginal Day in 1996 by Governor General Roméo LeBlanc, it was renamed in 2017. Communities across Canada host events, and it is part of the federal Celebrate Canada program. In 2021, Aboriginal peoples constituted 5.0% of Canada's total population.

What is a reserve in Canada?

A reserve is land set apart and designated by the federal government for the use and occupancy of a specific First Nation. It is governed under the Indian Act. Reserves should not be confused with a First Nation's traditional territory, which is often much larger. Reserve land is managed in trust by the Crown, and band councils administer local services and governance on reserves. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, as some nations were ceded multiple reserves by treaty.

What was the historical impact of European diseases on First Nations populations?

The effect of European colonization was a catastrophic population decrease of 40 to 80 percent among First Nations post-contact. This devastation was primarily due to repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, to which First Nations had no immunity. For example, smallpox in the late 1630s killed more than half of the Huron people. The Aboriginal population at the time of contact in the late 15th century is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million.

Sources and further reading

• First Nations in Canada (Wikipedia)
• Assembly of First Nations: Advocating for First Nations in ... (afn.ca)
• Frequently Asked Questions (indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca)
• National Indigenous Peoples Day (rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca)

Checked by the Nosy Mag desk. Last updated 2026-10-18.